For centuries, the quest to discover the source of Africa’s great Nile River has captivated explorers, much like the race to reach the North Pole or climb Mt. Everest first. The river’s vast expanse across central Africa complicated matters though, making exploration both daunting and dangerous.
Egyptian and Sudanese kingdoms depended on the river and its annual flooding since ancient times. From rulers like Emperor Nero, to later Victorian explorers like Stanley and Livingstone, the pursuit of the Nile’s origin has been marked by determination and perseverance. In the 19th century, it was one of last geographical mysteries left on Earth to discover.
The Nile River is the longest river in the world. It spans over 4,000 miles and flows through no less than 11 African countries. Its expansive basin is one of the largest and most complex. The river’s two primary branches are the White Nile and the Blue Nile. They converge in Khartoum, Sudan, to form the main Nile which then flows north through Egypt and into the Mediterranean. This led to uncertainly over the centuries about which tributary concealed its true origin. 12th century explorers identified the source of the shorter Blue Nile in the Ethiopian highlands at Lake Tana.
The White Nile River flows from the south through mountains, deserts, savannahs and swamps. Its source is buried within dense equatorial rainforests and a complex system of interconnected lakes and rivers. This challenging landscape made navigation both difficult and dangerous for early explorers. They had to contend with equatorial weather, hungry wildlife, diseases, and predatory tribes.
The ancient Egyptians relied heavily on the Nile, so they guarded it jealously.
They restricted access, and the knowledge of its course was a state secret. The Egyptians believed its source was the “Nile’s Eye,” a divine underground cavern guarded by the god Hapi. Farther upriver, the Nile was a integral part of the religion and culture of the civilizations it supported. Myths and legends about the ‘Mother River’ were found in every nation.
In ancient times, technology was rudimentary, limiting the ability to chart its course. Without reliable maps and navigation tools, explorers could not determine their true position. Even during Victorian times, there were no motorized cars, boats, or aircraft. These early explorers had to rely on compass, canoes, guides, and their own personal resolve.
The 19th century was a new era of exploration. European adventurers ventured into remote areas of the Earth seeking both knowledge and fame. The race to discover the elusive source of the River Nile attracted numerous explorers. Among them were figures like David Livingstone and Henry Stanley, Samuel Baker and his wife Florenz, Sir Richard Burton, and John Speke. Only one was successful.
John Hanning Speke was an army officer’s son from Devon, England born in 1827.
He was commissioned into the East India Company army in 1844 at the age of only seventeen. In 1854, after ten years on the subcontinent and now a captain, he eagerly joined an expedition to explore east Africa. It was under the command of Captain Richard Burton. Burton was a British officer famous for a dramatic visit to Mecca during the Hajj. He went disguised as an Arab pilgrim, a risky endeavor for a non-Muslim European.
In early 1855, Speke accompanied Burton on a voyage to Somalia, with the intention of heading south into East Africa. In Somalia however, their caravan came under a fierce attack by Berbera tribesmen. Both Speke and Burton were seriously wounded by spears. Burton in the face and Speke almost fatally in the thigh.
Following the attack, Burton questioned Speke’s nerve. Speke considering this a personal insult to his courage. This resentment festered and caused a growing hostility between these two very different men. Compared to the daring and adventurous Burton, Jack Speke seemed like a cautious slogger and a follower. Burton could speak more languages, but Speke was the better hunter. Regardless, the expedition was a failure.
Despite their mutual animosity, in June 1857 Speke joined Burton again on a second, much larger expedition to the fabled ‘Great Lakes’ region of east Africa. This particular search was arranged by the Royal Geographical Society in London. The stated purpose was to follow up on rumors of a great interior lake, called the Sea of Ujiji by Africans.
In reality, Burton and Speke would be searching for the source of the Nile River.
This time, the expedition moved inland from the East African coast opposite the Zanzibar islands (present day Tanzania). In February 1858, they ‘discovered’ Lake Tanganyika. After three months exploring the long lake’s shoreline for the Nile’s source, both Burton and Speke became dangerously sick with malaria. The expedition regrettably started back towards the coast.
At Lake Tanganyika, they had heard from local tribesmen of an even larger lake to the north. Speke recovered from his bought of malaria and decided to break off from Burton in search of the bigger lake. Burton grudging gave him command of a much smaller, 34 member search party which headed north.
In August, Speke came upon the southern end of a truly enormous lake. He later described as ‘a vast expanse of the pale-blue waters.’ He named it Victoria Nyanza after his British queen. He correctly surmised that this was the true source of the White Nile. What led to this theory was well documented in his meticulous journals.
Not surprisingly, once both men were back on the African coast, Burton would not accept Speke’s claim. He rejected it outright, stating there was no convincing evidence for Lake Victoria. He believed, without his own evidence, that the true source was ‘his’ expedition’s Lake Tanganyika.
Speke and Burton sailed back to England separately.
Speke got back first in May 1859. He announced to the RGS that he alone had found the source of the Nile, Lake Victoria! He published his account in Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine. When Burton arrived, he was infuriated by Speke’s account and felt disparaged. The divide between them grew even larger. The two presented joint papers to the Royal Geographical Society on June 1859.
Speke published a book in two parts: the “Journal of Adventures in Somali Land” and the “Journal of a Cruise on the Tanganyika Lake.” Speke’s journal entry on August 3, 1858 recounts his first sight of the enormous Lake Victoria: “I no longer felt any doubt that the lake at my feet gave birth to that most interesting river, the source of which has been the subject of so much speculation, and the object of so many great explorers.”
The RGS sent Speke back to Africa to substantiate his claim, this time with Scottish explorer James Grant. This expedition left the East African coast in September 1860 with 176 men. His two interpreters squabbled incessantly, complicating negotiations with local rulers and Arab traders. After months delays, they reached Gondokoro (in South Sudan) in February 1862. [Here, the unmarried Speke is rumored to have fallen in love with a girl in the royal court and even fathered a daughter.]
After lobbying Mutesa, King of Buganda, they were finally allowed to travel south. The expedition left to find the northern point on Lake Victoria, where the Nile hopefully flowed from the lake. On July 28, 1862, they reached the point at which the Nile issues from Lake Victoria into the White Nile. It was the crowning achievement of Speke’s life and he was only thirty-five years old. Speke named it Ripon Falls, after the President of the RGS.
Speke and Grant got back to Gondokoro in February 1863 and by May was in Cairo. There he announced to the British press and the world that he now had proof he’d discovered the true source of the Nile. As far as he was concerned, the matter was now ‘settled.’
Speke returned to England where he was proclaimed a hero. In December 1863, he published The Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile. It was intended to both bolster Speke’s claim and his reputation as an explorer, having been tainted by Richard Burton. Unfortunately, it had been badly edited and appeared inappropriately ‘boastful.’ Burton continued to claim, without substantiation, that ‘his’ Lake Tanganyika was the true source of the Nile.
Speke and Grant did not follow the young White Nile River through its every twist and turn on their journey to Cairo. This shortcoming enabled doubters in Britain, like Richard Burton, to question whether ‘his’ river really was the White Nile. The two famous explorers were once again completely at odds.
A public debate between the two was scheduled at the British Association for September 1864.
The week before, Speke went shooting partridges with his cousin and a gamekeeper in Wiltshire. While climbing over a stone wall with his gun cocked, he slipped and accidentally shot himself in the chest. Speke must have known the severity of his wound for his only words were, “Do not move me.” He died on the ground before his cousin could return with help. John Hanning Speke was just thirty-seven.
Rumors, spread by Richard Burton, said that Speke had committed suicide. Supposedly it was because he was scared to face Burton in a public debate with a false claim of discovery. A jury later ruled Speke’s death was indeed a terrible accident.
Lingering skepticism over Speke’s accomplishment lead to an 1866 expedition. This one lead by the famous British missionary David Livingstone to confirm, once and for all, the source of the River Nile. Livingstone’s expedition however famously vanished in central Africa for six years. He was eventually discovered by American journalist Henry Stanley in Tanzania. Livingstone refused to leave and died in Africa of malaria. Stanley returned to Africa for yet another expedition and this time confirmed Speke’s Lake Victoria-White Nile claim.
Richard Burton married and joined the Diplomatic Service, serving as British consul in Guinea, Brazil, and Damascus. He had a lifelong obsession with the sexual practices of the tribes he encountered and published detailed accounts in various travel journals. This led to public speculation that he had not just observed, but enthusiastically participated in, the acts he so vividly described. Burton would carry this scandal to his death in 1890.
In 1951, American adventurer John Goddard and two French friends became the first people to successfully navigate the entire Nile River. They kayaked for nine months from its source at Ripon Falls to its mouth at Alexandria on the Mediterranean Sea, a journey of 4,200 mi (6,800 km). Sadly, a new dam submerged Ripon Falls in 1954 and it is no longer visible.
Today, satellite imagery allows modern geographers to accurately map and study the vast Nile River Basin. The River Nile has eleven hydroelectric dams and dozens of bridge crossings scattered throughout its voluminous length. Researchers have identified several sources that feed into Lake Victoria, including the Kagera River in Rwanda, which is now considered the true source of the River Nile.
So interesting! Thank you for the information!